Scientific History of Some Alien Plants in India : Origin , Implications and Culture

Indian subcontinent has a rich heritage of biodiversity because of its variable geo-climatic conditions. Several exotic plant species survived since ancient period and became an integral part of Indian flora. Nay, they now seem to be iconic plants and are being venerated. They are valued by the Indians for their esteem, culture and welfare. Select 20 exotic  notable species are studied from the standpoint of their origin, distribution, culture and ancient Sanskrit literature. Diverse information about them is adduced from architecture, art, archaeological sites, etymology (philology), anthropology,  ancient Sanskrit and religious scriptures. Some of them were once thought introduced by western rulers in the then India few centuries ago. This belief can be easily negated based on the present investigation. They appeared to have been brought in India during pre-Columbian period. They also appear to be indicators of Indian contacts with various parts of the Old World and interestingly even New World.


Carefulness while collating researches
History deals with the life and not the dead.Archaeology demands very gradual removal of soil around the objects and is a time-consuming endeavour.Genesis of languages is also a slow process.During revisionary studies and assessing revelations from these fields, one has to be very careful.The reviewer has to go back in such exercises in the then environment and societal status understanding their every pros and cons.Indians, in past, accepted useful alien plant species and appropriated them for their own welfare.
Current as well as ancient Indian philosophy developed by expert Jivak in Buddhist period state that 'all plants have medicinal virtues' (Charak Samhita, 1949).Vedic texts also inform that no root (plant) is useless.All that is good is culturally welcomed and absorbed by Indian civilization.This has been also Vedic doctrine since ancient times.Moreover, Indian subcontinent has been the host to some of the oldest ancient civilizations.All these philosophies and histories indicate a fact that useful (intentional) as well as unusual (unintentional) alien plant species invaded India in past.

PRESENT STUDY
Their history, probable period of introduction and familiarization by Indians can be investigated from diverse sources such as archaeology, archaeobotany, anthropology, ancient literary scriptures and such other sources of empirical information.This paper is an attempt in investigate some popular alien plants and limelight their existence in Indian Territory and culture based on their allpervasive examination.Relevant literature based on aforesaid sources has been consulted critically and assessed in the Indian perspective.

Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae)
De Candolle (1882) considered Western Temperate Asia as its nativity, while Bailey (1949) mentioned it a native of Europe.Recent technique isozyme and RAPD markers used by Maab and Klaas (1995) pointed out West to the Middle Asia to be the primary centre of origin and the Mediterranean region as the secondary centre of origin.It is thought that introduction of garlic into India during Mohenjo-Daro period (nearly 3000 BC.) out of trade relationships between India, Egypt and Mesopotamia.Carbonized cloves of garlic at Harappan site Balu, district Kaithal (Haryana) have been also recorded (Saraswat and Pokharia, 2002).This confirms evidence of its cultivation in ancient period.It is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit scripts viz., Ashtanga hridayam, Bhava Prakasam, Charak Samhita, Dhanvantari Nighantu, Kaiyadeva Nighantu, Raja nighantu, Rajavallabham, etc.In Sanskrit, it is called 'Ransonah', 'Ugragandha', 'Yavanishta', 'Malechakanda', 'Lasunaha', 'Granjanaba', 'Mahakandaba', etc.In Indian subcontinent it is/was widely used as spice and medicine since ancient times.

Anacardium occidentale Linn. (Anacardiaceae)
It is a native of tropical America (Patil, 1995) especially Brazil and Venezuela.It is reported introduced in India in 16 th Century AD by the Portuguese (Sauer, 1993).Rheede (1682) mentioned its medicinal (ethnomedicinal) properties, information obtained from Malabar region of India, in his Vol.3 of 'Horti Indici Malabarici' (Amsterdam) with a common or vernacular local name in Malayalam 'Kapamava'.Local uses and local name indicate that the species was introduced much earlier in Malabar region of India.and was deeply integrated with native culture.Interestingly, its Malayam name 'kapa-mava' is also incorporated by Linnaeus (1753) in his Species Plantarum.Cunningham (1879) suggested its ancient cultivation in India.He noted sculptured depiction of fruit of this species at the Bharhut Stupa dated ca.200 BC.Gupta (1996) also observed depiction of entire plant of cashew-nut with flowers and fruits at the Jambukeshwara temple in Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu (India), which was constructed 2500 years back.Sorenson (2005) pointed out cashew-nut as one of the plant species as decisive evidence of transoceanic carriage from America to India.He provides sketch of cashew-nuts on the balustrade of the Bharhut Stupa in Madhya Pradesh (India) ca. 2 nd Century BC.Sanskrit names for it are cited as 'Kajutaka' (Pullaiah, 2002), 'Shoephahara' (Nadkarni, 1914) and 'Bijara Sala or Sula' (Balfour, 1871(Balfour, -1873)) https://plantaescientia.website/ojs 'Vrkkphalah' and 'Venamrah'.All these lend supports for its ancient cultivation in India.The Sanskrit appropriately describe curved shape of fruits or seeds.
Johannesen  Krishna and Amirthalingam, 2014).The Indian evidences are sometimes misunderstood for its Indian origin.

Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabinaceae)
It is native of Capsian sea region and Caucasus Mountains (Watt, 1908).In India, especially in Rigveda (1400-900 BC.), it is mentioned as 'Bhang' and other ancient Sanskrit texts viz., Kalpsutra, Brahmanas and Paninin's Astadhyayi and Vartik (6 th -5 th Century).It is also called 'Vijaya' or Siddapatri (Nadkarni, 1914) and by few other names.It is deeply rooted in Indian mythology.After churning of the sea (Samudramanthan), demons attempted to gain control of 'Amrita', but the gods seized giving Cannabis the name Vijaya (Victory) to commemorate their success.It is hold sacred to Lord Shiva.Since ancient times, it is used for rituals and Tantrik practices.All Indian names are distinctive and based on its narcotic virtues.Its medicinal virtue to cure leprosy is mentioned in Susruta Samhita (200 BC.).The Bhava prakasha (1600 AD.) fairly documented its medicinal utility.Archaeological remains of Kunal (Haryana) contained flattened seeds as far back as, 100 AD. (Saraswat and Pokharia, 2003).It was domesticated in India 200 years before the nominal invention of papermaking by Cai Lun in China about 2000 years ago.It was used for narcotics, fibre and oil (Sudhir Chandra, 2017).It is one of the plant species which found place in food economy in the Pre-Harappan period.It was found in archaeological site in the Pre-Narhan Phase (Pre 1800-1400 BC.) (Vishnu-Mittre and Savithri, 1993).Interestingly, Singh and Sardesai (2016) recorded its use as sustainable construction material as an organic additive in the clay plaster of the 6 th Century AD Buddhist caves of Ellora (M.S., India).Authors revealed valuable property of hemp known to the ancient Indians.Its ancient cultivation is thus corroborated also by empirical evidence.

Capsicum annuum Linn. (Solanaceae)
It is a native Chile (Bailey, 1928) and South America (Voight, 1845).Roxburgh (1814)  and mention its application in pulmonary tuberculosis.This again lends support its cultivation in ancient period in India.
Interestingly, developing and mature fruits along with leaves and flowers are depicted in honour of Hindu God Lord Shiva, at Jambukeshvara Shiva temple, Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu (Gupta, 1996) , 1989).Kautilya also cited this name in his 'Athashastra' (Sharmashastry, 1961).Charak Samhita (700 BC.) states that chicken soup provided health to the populace.Sushruta Samhita (400 BC.) states that cooked chickpea and their leaves were nutritious items (Krishna Murthy, 1991) 'Maghani' (Torkelson, 1999) and thought cultivated at least before 1000 AD.Pokharia andSaraswat (1998-1999) reported seeds of G.arboreum L. / G.herbaceum L. from the ancient archaeological site Sanghal, Punjab (India) dated 100-300 AD.Kirit (2012) recorded a coarse cotton sash slung across chest of Lord Buddha sculpted in Rani-Ki-Vav, Patan, Gujarat (India) dated most likely in the 11 th Century AD.Region of Harappan extends in the state of Gujarat.For example, Lothal (Gujarat) was a Harappan port town from where trade between then India and overseas depended.This Harappan town dates back ca.2500-1900 BC. (Rao, 2008).

Helianthus annuus L. (Asteraceae)
It is a native of Central America and Peru (Coats, 1956).In Sanskrit, it is called Suryamukhi and Adityabhakta (Torkelson, 1999;Nadkarni, 1914) and so mentioned in ancient Sanskrit scripts viz., Bhava prakasham, Dhanvantari Nighantu, Kaiyadeva Nighantu, Raja nighantu, etc.It is mentioned in Charaka Samhita, prior to 4 th Century AD. which decisively suggests its ancient introduction or cultivation in India (Aiyer and Narayan, 1956).Gupta (1996) highlighted its depiction in Ram Gumpha cave at Udaigiri (Orissa, India) dated 2 nd Century BC.It is also depicted in temples of Hoysala Empire in Karnataka in the 12 th -13 th Century (Sorenson, 2005).It is also sculpted between ear and horn of Nandi, a mythological bull always associated with Lord Shiva (a Hindu God), at a temple of Halebid (Karnataka) (Johannesen, 1998) indicating its antiquity.It is commonly called 'Sunflower' worldwide.Interestingly, it is a emblem of the Sun God in Peru and carved as such in the walls of Inca temple (Patil, 2007).It is rightly incorporated while coining scientific or botanical name Helianthus (Gk.Helios-the sun; anthos-a flower) simulating the Sun (Patil, loc.cit.).The Incas believed that the sunflower was the physical manifestation of the Sun God on Earth.(Sensarma, 1994;Winternitz, 1927).Seeds of this species have been reported at Harappa and other archaeological sites in northern India (Saraswat, 2005;Saraswat and Pokharia, 2003;Kajale, 1996;Saraswat et al.,1994) during 600-1300 BC. (Singh and Nigam, 2017).

Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae)
It is a native of America (Bailey, 1949;Purseglove, 1968).In India, in most languages, it is called 'Tambaku' or 'Tambhakhu'.In Sanskrit, it is called 'Tamakhu' (Torkelson, 1999) or mentioned as 'Tamakhuh' in ancient Sanskrit scripts viz., Nighantusamgradam, Rajavallabham, Sushruta Samhita, Uttarasthanam, etc.It specific name is derived from 'Taobasco', a Mexican name (Patil, 2007).It is generally thought introduced in India in 1665 AD.Some opine that, after introduction is Europe, it was cultivated in India (Ashraf, 1985).It is was/is still enjoyed using Hooka, a watercooled device.This device is evidenced archaeologically on a temple in Himachal Pradesh (India) dated 1422-1424 AD. (Singh, 2016).It means it was introduced and very familiar to Indians prior to discovery of America by Columbus (1492 AD.).

Papaver somniferum L. (Papaveraceae)
It is native of Mediterranean countries and the Middle East (Coats, 1956;Anonymous, 1966).Morton (1977) thought especially Western Mediterranean region of Europe as the centre of origin.He further stated its spread through Balkan Peninsula to Asia Minor.The name 'Soma' is applied to it in Rigveda dating back to 1500 BC or even more, although this name is used to denote many other narcotic species in Indian ancient Sanskrit scriptures.It is mentioned as 'Aphiphenam' and 'Aphukam' in ancient Sanskrit texts viz., Bhava Prakasam.Dhanvantari Nighantu, Nighant Adars and Susruta Samhita Uttarashanam.Its carbonized seeds have found at archaeological site Sanghal (ca.1900-1400 BC.) in Punjab (India) (Saraswat, 1997).

Phoenix dactylifera L. (Arecaceae): It is a native of North
Arabian Peninsula, Africa and Middle East (Chao and Krueger, 2001).It is commonly called Date Palm.In India, it fruit is known as 'Khajur'.Most Indian flora do not make reference to it.Before Indian independence Blatter (1909) listed it from Kutch (Possibly under rare cultivation).Earlier, it has been reported by Brandis (1874) from North-West and Central India under cultivation.The dates hail from Persian Gulf.In ancient times, it was cultivated in the desert belt of North Africa and the Middle East and its cultivation is traced back to Neolithic times.In the subcontinent, samples of stones (seeds) dated 7000 8500 BC are recorded at Mehrgarh (Kach Plains) in Baluchistan, adjacent to present Indian territory.Ceilings resembling date stones are recovered from Harappa (Vats, 1941) (presently adjacent locality to Punjab and Gujarat states of India).Its extension is recently reported, although somewhat doubtfully, from pre-Harappan levels at Rohira, Sangrur district of Punjab, dating 2300-2200 BC. (Saraswat, 1988).Singh (2008) reports still further distribution from Chalolithic-Narhan (ca.1000 BC.) in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh (India).It is called 'Khajur' in various Indian languages.In Sanskrit, it is called 'Bhumikhajurika' and 'Duraroha' (Singh and Nigam, 2017).Although Sanskrit is not used in present times, dates or date-palm has several meaningful names in Sanskrit: (i) Kharjura (leaves and fruits appear a top the tree), (ii) Pindi (fruits rounded or oval in shape), (iii) Skanda phala (fruits appear top part of stem), (iv) Swadu Mastaka or Swadu Phala (frutis being sweet), (vi) Duraroha (difficult to climb tall tree).Sanskrit was used in ancient period in India.The ancient scripts were/are written in it.Conclusively, we can say that date-palm were introduced in ancient times in India.

Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae)
It is a native of tropical America, especially Supe Valley of Peru which yielded its remains dating ca 2627 and 2020 BC.Nadkarni (1914)

Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae)
It is thought a native of South-East Europe (Naik, 1898;Ugemuge, 1986).Some others cite it as a native of Eurasia.
Prior to 2000 BC., it was brought under cultivation especially from Iran and Baluchistan (Singh and Nigam, 2017).Thence onwards, it gradually introduced in India during beginning period of Christian era.It does not find place in Vedic texts.In late period, various Sanskrit scripts included it e.g.Bhava Prakasam, Kaiyadeva Nighantu, Charak Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Gunapatham, Nighantu sangraham and Yogratnasamuccayam, Kalpsutras, Panini's and Vartik and Patanjali's Mahabhasya.
In Sanskrit scripts, it is mentioned as 'Draksha', 'Rasa', 'Mridvika', 'Madhurasa', 'Swadhuphala', etc.Even Kautilya in his 'Arthashastra' mentioned it as 'Mridvika' (cf.Shamasastry, 1915).These scriptures and Sanskrit names are evidences of cultivation and utility in India.Carbonized seeds of grapes have been unearthed at archaeological sites viz., Balu and Kunal, Haryana (India) from mature Harappan stage (Saraswat andPokharia, 2002, 2003) or 2000 BC. (Singh and Nigam, 2017).Pokharia andSaraswat (1998-1999) reported its seeds from ancient Sanghal site in Punjab during Kushana period (100-300 AD).Saraswat (1988Saraswat ( , 1992) ) explained evidence of grape-pips and vine charcoals from archaeological site Rohira, Punjab (India) that Harappans used to practice viticulture.Prior to this fact of viticulture in the then India, grapevine was known based on literature and Plantae Scientia (ISSN 2581-589X) https://plantaescientia.website/ojs sculptural evidence.Eastern gateway of Sanchi Stupa is sculpted with a parrot with a bunch of grapes.The grapevine is found as ornamental design at Sanchi and Bharut on pillar in Madhya Pradesh dating 2 nd -3 rd Century AD (Sitholey, 1976).A sculpture shows a lady with a wine pod and also holding a bunch of grapes in her hand at Mathura (2 nd Century CE).A sculpture from Bharut depicts a king with a grape twig, a leaf and bunch of grapes in his right hand.Another sculpture at Sanchi shows three parrots holding a bunch of grapes.Still another sculpture at Mount Abu (Rajasthan) and Andal temple of Srivilliputtur (Tamil Nadu) shows Rati holding a bunch of grapes (Gupta, 1996;Nandita and Amirthalingam, 2014).All these evidence its occurrence in ancient period in India.

Sources of investigation
Agriculture was/is a way of life, nay a philosophy and culture of its own in India.

Alien species
In this communication, 20 useful but exotic plant species are projected based on studies in various disciplines.Apart from literary and historical evidences, an emphasis has been also laid upon on hard data, an empirical approach.Apart from indigenous crop species, ancient Indians also opted and appropriated foreign plants in Indian environment.The select 20 species of the present account reflect selection and adaptation of the exotic crop species meant for various purposes, probably for better yields or an alternative to indigenous crop species.They appropriated plant as spices (Allium cepa, A. sativum, Capsicum annuum), Cereals (Zea mays), Pulses (Cicer arientinum), oil-yielders (Arachis hypogaea, Helianthus annuus, usitatissimum), fibers (Gossypium species, usitatissimum), edible nuts and fruits (Anacardium occidentale, Ananas comosus, Phoenix dactylifera, Annona squamosal, Vitis vinifera) and vegetables (Lagenaria siceraria).All these were/are essential crops for their sustenance.Apart from sustaining crop species, ancient Indians also loved mind-altering or psychoactive plants e.g.Cannabis sativa, Papaver somnifera and Nicotiana tabacum.Interestingly, for dyeing purpose, they also cultivated dye-yielders e.g.Lawsonia inermis.All these alien crop species reflect the then Indian economy.

CONCLUSIONS
All these species were probably commonly cultivated in India and after well familiarization they have been appropriated and thought sacred to these deities since then.Some plant species were thought introduced by the European invaders during last few centuries ago.However, the present review clearly explained their introduction and domestication during pre-Columbian period in India.
. Other ancient Sanskrit treatises viz., Rajavallabham and Sushruta Samhita Uttarasthanam include names such as 'Vrkkabijah', Plantae Scientia (ISSN 2581-589X) The local name and utility indicates its more familiarity of the people of Malayalam although its introduction in India in thought by the Portuguese in 16 th century AD.Its Sanskrit name 'Katuvirah' and 'Raktamaricuh' are mentioned in Sanskrit scripts viz., Ayurvedavijnam, Gunapatham, Sivadatta nighantu and Sushruta Samhita Uttarsthanam.Torkelson (1999) cited its Sanskrit name as 'Marich-phalam'.Chillies find place in Vamana Purana and Siva Purana dated ca 6 th -8 th century AD.
Watt (1908)t al., 1960;westwards by the Western Aryans (the Pelasgians and Hellenes) to the Mediterranean and eastwards to India(De Candolle, 1882).According toAllchin (1969), it was introduced in India (relatively) recently.It was found in Nevasa (Maharashtra) in a layer dating from 300-100 BC.(Sankalia et al., 1960; Allchin, loc.cit.).In the Puranas and literature of the Aryans, it is mentioned in the 4 th Century AD.Apart from the northern side, it could also have been introduced via south Indian harbours.The Dravidian use the names 'But', 'Buta', 'Kadalia' for chichpea.These names are quite different form the Sanskrit names 'Chennuka', 'Chanak', etc. Sanskrit names eventually became 'Chana', in Hindi and other Indian languages.Its 'Kabuli' from a variety logically points to Kabul (Afghanistan) on the ancient 'Silk Road' from Europe via Samarkand to India.Indians thought this variety hailed from Kabul and hence the name.It is called Horse gram.Watt (1908)opined that the name 'gram' originated from the Portuguese 'grao' (i.e.grain).
Roxburgh (1832)the genus Gossypium are distributed in both the Old and New Worlds.They are also broadly Asiatic or American species.Synonyms of various species and forms and their history is rather complicated.Their common names appear rather informative.Varieties other than proper of G. herbaceum Linn.are found in India e.g.(i) G. herbaceum Linn.var.wightianumWoodrow is locally called 'Hinganghat' cotton.It is the principal source of Indian cotton.(ii)G.herbaceum Linn.var.religiosumMast. is named as 'Khaki' or 'Nankin' cotton.Roxburgh (1832)opined that this variety come to India from China.(iii) G. herbaceum Linn.
. There is a striking similarity of chickpea in Karnataka (called Kadale) and Kerala (called Kalala).Sanskrit name var.hirsutum Mast. is called 'Upland Georgian' and suggests its exotic nature.G. herbaceum Linn. is also called 'Asiatic' or 'Levent Cotton(Bailey, 1999; Purse glove, 1968).Bailey  (loc.cit.)cite its nativity as Asia Minor and Arabia, whereas Purseglove (loc.cit.)considered it native of Asia and Africa.Another species G. barbadense Linn. is introduced one (Dalzell and Gibson, 1861).Its variety viz., G. barbadense Linn.var.brasiliense is called 'Brazilian' cotton and thought introduced from Brazil or Peru by the Portuguese (Dalzell and Gibson, loc.cit.).Gossypium arboretum Linn. is referred under local the name Devakapas (Deva-god; kapas-cotton) as it is usually grown near temple and also used as sacred thread during 'Munj' ceremony in Hindus.G. arboreum Linn.var.neglectum is cultivated in Bengal and hence called (Likewise, G. arboretum Linn. is called 'Karpus' in the ancient Sanskrit texts viz., Kalpasutras, Panini's Astadhyayi and Vartik, and Patanjali's Mahabhasya.Gossypium barbadense L., although American in origin, is named as in Sanskrit as Plantae Scientia (ISSN 2581-589X) https://plantaescientia.website/ojs Sanskrit names are indicative of its use as dye for hair and human body parts since long time.This is also evidenced from the paintings of world-fame Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra (India).Lawsonia inermis (called Mehandi or Henna in India) is a biocolorant, chemically it is quinonoid used for dying or to draw certain artistic patterns on body parts.The earliest artefacts are available in the Ajanta Caves (District Aurangabad, Maharashtra) from about 400 CE.Dyed hands and feet in the Ajanta paintings are observed on men, women, deities and demons (cf.www.newsfinder.org/site/more/the_art_of_mehandi).
(Singh, 2008)ncient scripts e.g.Kalpasutras, Panini's Astadhyayi and Vartik and Patanjali's Mahabhasya and as 'Pindaphala' in Panini's Astadhyayi and Vartik(Singh, 2008).These sources are certainly indicative of empirical evidence of its cultivation in ancient India Pullaiah (2002)name 'Perala', while Chopra  et al., (1956)andPullaiah (2002)mentioned it as 'Perukah'.It is called simply 'Peru' in Marathi language in India.All these appear named after the country Peru, its nativity.It also finds place in ancient script Charak Samhita.It means guava is not introduced in India at least, not later than 4 th Century.All these evidences certainly refute its introduction in India by Portuguese in 17 th Century.
negated this view and instead cited mention of maize as 'Markataka' in ancient Sanskrit scripts viz., Vishnu Purana and Apasthamba Saruta Sutra.He further opined that, subsequent derived 'Mak' or 'Maka' terms are convincing.Depiction of maize ears at Hoysala temple (Near Mysore).Karnataka (India) built in 12 th and 13 th Century AD. supports antiquity of maize introduction(Vishnu-Mittre, 1968)or cultivation in India.